..."And as I walked alone, I heard the sun singing as it arose, and it sang like this:

With visible face I am appearing.
In a sacred manner I appear.
For the greening earth a pleasantness I make.
The center of the nation's hoop I have made pleasant.
With visible face, behold me!
The four-leggeds and two-leggeds, I have made them to walk;
The wings of the air, I have made them to fly.
With visible face I appear.
My day, I have made it holy."....

--- "Black Elk Speaks" - John G. Neihardt

"When the white man came, we had the land and they had the bibles. Now they have the land and we have the bibles."

---- Chief Dan George

"The time will soon be here when my grandchild will long for the cry of a loon, the flash of a salmon, the whisper of spruce needles, or the screech of an eagle. But he will not make friends with any of these creatures and when his heart aches with longing he will curse me. Have I done all to keep the air fresh? Have I cared enough about the water? Have I left the eagle to soar in freedom? Have I done everything I could to earn my grandchild’s fondness?"

---- Chief Dan George

"Where no one intrudes, many can live in harmony."

---- Chief Dan George

"May the stars carry your sadness away,
May the flowers fill your heart with beauty,
May hope forever wipe away your tears,
And, above all, may silence make you strong."

---- Chief Dan George

Remedies From Native American Cultures - Liz Serflek

"Mike Spring, paralyzed from the waist... down and in constant pain, sailed to the Azores and back. On his return, he confounded his TV interviewer with the statement that the only way he was able to obtain relief from the pain that continually racked his body was to press his back to an oak tree. This simple and cost-free action would then afford him several hours of complete relief and helped him to carry on in life. When asked for a scientific explanation, Mr. Spring replied that he had none-- it simply worked! He had heard of the treatment from an American Indian source and had been using it successfully for years" (Psychology of Healing- Murry Hope 89).

How can that possibly be? A tree curing backaches? He must have been taking some aspirin, too, many of us assume. It is not uncommon for a person in Western culture to be thinking this way. We were raised with the belief that our medical society largely based on chemical concoctions is powerful because it has cures for everything from various cancers all the way down the list to the common cold. Don't get me wrong, the medical profession is quite effective, but for several generations, Native Americans have been using herbs to cure aches and pains, and various other illnesses. Many of the herbs used by Native Americans are the ones you can actually find in aspirin and other medications today. In fact, many ingredients used in various modern medications are actually derived from Native American cultures. (http://keller.clarke.edu/~english/honors/aaron/index.html#Native)

Herbal medicine is being reintroduced through various forms of alternative medicine. Out on the market we see aromatherapy, acupuncture, herbology, and many more forms of alternative medicine.

Herbology is a practice which seeks to heal people through a variety of herbal supplements. Howard Buckingham, a clinical herbalist that works with North American herbs, comments that he "sees clients with arthritis, skin problems, prostate, impotence and hormonal problems, menopause- a lot of different ailments that people have....Taken in the right dosage and often in the right combinations, herbs can help a person a great deal" (in Wolf 1). He further discusses how people use herbs to help relieve the side affects they experience through Western medical procedures.

Aromatherapy deals with various scents to change the mood of individuals. Melinda Wolf comments that "In addition to candles and oils, consumers can purchase soaps and shampoos that can be used to practice this alternative medicine. Those who use this method say the scent can alter moods and enhance the body, mind, and spirit" (1). Aromatherapy is very powerful according to Mary Emmons, a massage therapist in Wauwatosa, WI. "Different scents have different effects. Lavender helps bring peace and balance and has been known to help ease respiratory problems such as asthma and bronchitis; basil helps stimulate brain function; mandarin has a cheerful refreshing and inspiring effect in the individual" (in Wolf 7).

Acupuncture, considered a form of alternative medicine in Western culture, is considered mainstream in China. Acupuncture involves using needles to treat a variety of ailments. Dr. Lizhi Wei of an acupuncture practice in Shorewood, Wi reports it is used to treat "back and neck ailments, arthritis, anxiety, headaches/migraines, indigestion, and even infertility" (in Wolf 8).

Through these various forms of alternative medicine, Native American beliefs pertaining to nature and spirituality are being awakened in American culture.

Why is alternative medicine becoming so popular? Are people starting to doubt the effectiveness of Western medicine? Wolf notes that "In some instances, individuals suffering from chronic ailments become disenchanted with Western medicine's ability to help them cope with those ailments. In other instances, individuals have chosen alternative methods to take a more proactive stance on treating their ailments" (1). Americans looking for new ways to cure themselves from various illnesses may be finding that escaping from all the technology and stress of the Western medical society makes it easier to deal with their illness and to focus on getting better. Herbal remedies are not as stressful and depressing as some medical techniques because the main focus is on making peace with nature and the whole body, not just the place of illness. According to the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM), "Pharmaceutical drugs are seen as over prescribed, expensive, and dangerous whereas herbal remedies are seen as less expensive and less toxic" (185).

How exactly are alternative medicine and Western medicine related? in Alfonso Ortiz and Richard Erdoes suggest that "Mysterious but real power dwells nature (http://keller.clarke.edu/~english/honors/rose/index.html#nature) -- in mountains, rivers, rocks, even pebbles. White people may consider them inanimate objects, but to the Indian, they are enmeshed in the web of the universe, pulsating with life and potent with medicine" (in Paula Gunn Allen 2). Nature is the most important aspect of the universe in which humans only play a part. That is why Native Americans spend a great deal of time restoring balance and harmony with nature. Native Americans believe that the reason why a person becomes ill is because the balance with nature has been disturbed. By performing shamanic healing practices through various rituals, the Navajo Native Americans believe they have solved their problems with the Gods and Goddesses.

The Office of Alternative Medicine comments on two Navajo healing chants. They cite that Holyway chants "are used to attract good, to cure, and to repair" (98). They went on further to say that "Lifeway chants are used to treat what westerners would call 'physical' injuries and accidents; such treatment includes both restoring cosmological harmony and repairing trauma- by setting broken bones, for example' (98). Beautyway is another Navajo healing chant not mentioned by OAM. Beautyway is sung for aching feet, legs, arms, waist and back, swollen ankles, mental confusion, and itching skin.

Much research on the healing rituals and herbal medicines of Native Americans has not been performed because the technology to test whether or not the procedures work is not yet available. Tests for Western medicinal procedures are the only kinds of tests available. Those testing procedures cannot examine alternative healing methods because of the differences between the two styles. Testing alternative methods require different types of tests. Although alternative healing methods are not yet testable, Native Americans still claim that they can cure ailments and diseases. Some of those ailments and diseases that they claim to have healed are thyroid conditions, asthma, heart disease, and cancer (OAM 99). (http://keller.clarke.edu/~english/honors/jach/index.html#alternate)

According to Dr. Zimmerman, Director of anthropology at the University of South Dakota, Native Americans use poplar or bark to cure headaches. These plants (http://keller.clarke.edu/~english/honors/pam/index.html#plants) contain the ingredient salicin, which is found in aspirin (http://keller.clarke.edu/~english/honors/joe/index.html#headache) (149). In addition, white willow bark can be used to treat tumors, warts, cancers, calluses, and corns. It can also be used to fight fever and to treat sore eyes (OAM 196). Zimmerman also points out that Native American Indians believe that "chewing certain roots helped to relieve sore throats and headaches, while teas made from various plants eased indigestion" (111).

Several over- the - counter and prescription drugs contain ingredients such as taxol, ergot, and vincristine, which were derived from Native American medicinal herbs. The OAM reported that "cough drops that contain menthol, mint, horehound, or lemons are herbal preparations; chamomile and mint teas taken for digestion or a nervous stomach are time- honored herbal remedies; and many simple but effective OTC ache-and pain- relieving preparations on every druggist's or grocer's shelf contain oils of camphor, menthol, or eucalyptus. Millions of Americans greet the morning with their favorite herbal stimulant-- coffee" (185).

The Office of Alternative Medicine also listed a variety of Native American medicinal herbs that can be found to treat many of the sameillnesses that the medical profession treats with pharmaceuticals. I am only going to list a few. Rabbit tobacco is used by Native Americans to treat colds, flu, asthma, coughs, and pneumonia. To treat menstrual bleeding, diarrhea, sores, sprains, swelling, and kidney problems including Bright's disease, Native Americans use oak. Bloodroot has been used to heal uterine and other cancers, sore throats, and chronic bronchitis. It has also been used as a pain reliever (196).

To treat stomach cramps, sores and wounds, tuberculosis, and colds and coughs, Native American cultures use Wild Cherry. Cherry is a common ingredient found in cough drops- a synthetic pharmaceutical. All pharmaceuticals contain ingredients that are derived from nature, and many of the ingredients were originated in Native American cultures. The OAM supported this viewpoint when they commented that "Well into the 20th century much of the pharmacopoeia of scientific medicine was derived from the herbal lore of the native peoples" (183).

If so many ingredients in pharmaceuticals contain herbs originated in Native American culture, then why does the medical society denounce the Native American healing methods?

Most Americans have forgotten or have never learned that our medical society originated from Native American cultures. Our society has neglected the fact that over- the- counter drugs and prescription drugs are derived from Native American herbs. In the past doctors used to rely on Native American herbal resources such as leaves, berries, trees, roots, twigs, barks, and flowers to treat many illnesses (OAM 185). It was not until medical technology was advancing and becoming popular that people began to lose touch with their herbal heritage.

Before medical technology was available, doctors relied on Native American knowledge of nature to heal illnesses. When medical technology became available, people started to depend heavily on the technology and seemed to have forgotten about their roots (http://keller.clarke.edu/~english/honors/jen/index.html#roots) in Native American cultures. People began to focus more on advancing technology and to try improving the ways that medicine works, that they forgot to thank the people who gave them their beginning knowledge: the Native American Indians.

When discussing the differences in medical values between the Western medical society and the Native American Indians, Candance Croft, a Psychology professor at Clarke College, pointed out that Native Americans feel that if you believe a certain remedy will work, then you will see it working. Western medicine say that in order to believe a certain remedy works, they must first see it working (personal interview). Croft went on further to note that the medical society's focus is on "curing" people while the Native American's focus on "healing" people. When Native American medicine men and women are healing people, they are not only treating the illness such as a sore throat, for example, but they are also healing the whole body. Native Americans believe that the only way a person can be healed is if they can rid the body of the evil that has fallen upon it. Paula Gunn Allen states that "Healers...must know the spiritual causes of diseases, the spiritual condition of patients, and the spirit that informs each plant and animal entity they use in treatment" (12). Healers must also know the physical, emotional, spiritual, and mental state of the patients as well (12). Gunn went on further to point out that "Native healers don't apply the same medication or process to the same physical symptoms in different patients because they treat entire entities, whole persons, not symptoms" (12). At the other extreme, the medical society uses identical treatment techniques and medications on patients who share similar symptoms. Furthermore, the medical society has far more advanced technology and medications to help them treat patients. Native American healers use knowledge, nature, and prayer to heal their patients.

Both Native American Indians and the medical society have similar types of medicine, the two just use them in contrasting ways. The medical profession uses strong manufactured pharmaceuticals while Native healers present their herbs in the form of food to be eaten, teas, and poultices. Having specifically calculated pharmaceuticals makes it easy for the medical society to scientifically explain their medicine. Native healers, on the other hand, use their own knowledge and their spiritual visions to formulate their mixtures. While the commercially manufactured pharmaceuticals are sometimes more powerful, the vast majority of herbal content is similar to the mixtures of Native healers. In addition, native healers rely on their spirtual beliefs as well as their own physical procedures to heal their patients. The medical society, on the other hand, holds an objective belief in medicine. Western medicine relies completely on physical methods when curing their patients.

http://keller.clarke.edu/~english/honors/liz/

INDIAN MEDICINE - Takatoka

The Creator gave many ways to heal bodily afflictions. It is said that for every ailment known to man, Mother Earth has a cure. We believe this to be so.

All animals, including humans must be attuned with Mother Earth to remain balanced and healthy. We are part of her, we are her and one day we all will return to her. In this electronic fast age of concrete, plastic and the daily grind, we lose connectivity with the peace and glory found at our feet and all around us. Herbal medicine helps to ground and bring balance.

It is useful to know herbal and mineral medicines when we find ourselves or others in serious need of treatment and a medical professional is not available. Total dependence on doctors and hospitals is unwise in this uncertain world. Practical knowledge of emergency medical treatment is important for everyone. Knowing how herbal remedies can benefit you and your family in your daily lives is also important.

The practice of herbal medicine is a science, not a pastime. Do not use this information to prescribe treatment for any one. What may work for you, may become fatal to another.

It is good to know the ancient ways and the gifts that are freely given by Mother Earth. Keeping this information alive is vital to human survival. It honors our ancestors and gives our children's children practical knowledge to help them along life's pathways.

The Origin of Medicine: A Cherokee Creation Story - James Mooney

At one time, animals and people lived together peaceably and talked with each other. But when mankind began to multiply rapidly, the animals were crowded into forests and deserts.

Man began to destroy animals wholesale for their skins and furs, not just for needed food. Animals became angry at such treatment by their former friends, resolving they must punish mankind. The bear tribe met in council, presided over by Old White Bear, their Chief. After several bears had spoken against mankind for their bloodthirsty ways, war was unanimously agreed upon. But what kinds of weapons should the bears use?

Chief Old White Bear suggested that man's weapon, the bow and arrow, should be turned against him. All of the council agreed. While the bears worked and made bows and arrows, they wondered what to do about bowstrings. One of the bears sacrificed himself to provide the strings, while the others searched for good arrow- wood. When the first bow was completed and tried, the bear's claws could not release the strings to shoot the arrow.

One bear offered to cut his claws, but Chief Old White Bear would not allow him to do that, because without claws he could not climb trees for food and safety. He might starve.

The deer tribe called together its council led by Chief Little Deer. They decided that any Indian hunters, who killed deer without asking pardon in a suitable manner, should be afflicted with painful rheumatism in their joints.

After this decision, Chief Little Deer sent a messenger to their nearest neighbors, the Cherokee Indians. "From now on, your hunters must first offer a prayer to the deer before killing him," said the messenger. "You must ask his pardon, stating you are forced only by the hunger needs of your tribe to kill the deer. Otherwise, a terrible disease will come to the hunter." When a deer is slain by an Indian hunter, Chief Little Deer will run to the spot and ask the slain deer's spirit.

"Did you hear the hunter's prayer for pardon?" If the reply is yes, then all is well and Chief Little Deer returns to his cave. But if the answer is no, then the Chief racks the hunter to his lodge and strikes him with the terrible disease of rheumatism, making him a helpless cripple unable to hunt again.

All the fishes and reptiles then held a council and decided they would haunt those Cherokee Indians, who tormented them, by telling them hideous dreams of serpents twining around them and eating them alive. These snake and fish dreams occurred often among the Cherokees. To get relief, the Cherokees pleaded with their Shaman to banish their frightening dreams if they no longer tormented the snakes and fish.

Now when the friendly plants heard what the animals had decided against mankind, they planned a countermove of their own. Each tree, shrub, herb, grass, and moss agreed to furnish a cure for one of the diseases named by the animals and insects.

Thereafter, when the Cherokee Indians visited their Shaman about their ailments and if the medicine man was in doubt, he communed with the spirits of the plants. They always suggested a proper remedy for mankind's diseases.

This was the beginning of plant medicine from nature among the Cherokee Indian nation a long, long time ago.

INDIAN REMEDIES - (Various Sources)

Indian remedies shown below are but a few examples of the thousands used by indigenous peoples for ailments of every description. Thousands of years spent gaining intimate knowledge of plants, minerals and their varied uses has given the world a vast pharmacopoeia of medicinal remedies and cures for many common ailments. Indian contributions to pharmacological medicine is unmatched anywhere in the world.

The list below intended for example purposes only and should not be used to medically treat ailments. In most instances, plants must be prepared using exacting methods. If used otherwise, the results may ineffectual if not dangerous.., or life threatening.

Asthma

Skunk Cabbage ---- Used by the Winnebago and Dakota tribes to stimulate the removal of phlegm. The rootstock was official in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1882 when it was used in respiratory and nervous disorders and in rheumatism and dropsy.

Mullein ---- Introduced by Europeans. The Menominees smoked the pulverized, dried root for respiratory complaints while the Forest Potawatomis, the Mohegans, and the Penobscots smoked the dried leaves to relieve asthma. The Catawba Indians used a sweetened syrup from the boiled root, which they gave to their children for coughs. Smoke and steam from the leaves of the mint were also used by many tribes.

Backache

Arnica -- The Catawba Indians used a tea of arnica roots for treating back pains. Arnica can be dangerous if taken internally and may cause severe and even fatal poisoning. Also used as a wash to treat sprains and bruises.

Gentian -- The Catawba Indians steeped the roots in hot water and applied the fluid on aching backs.

Horsemint --- The Catawba tribe crushed and steeped fresh horsemint leaves in cold water and drank the infusion to allay back pain. Other tribes used horsemint for fever, inflammation, and chills.

Blood Remedy

Sassafras --- A tonic was prepared using the leaves and bark. Often other plants such as onion and willow bark was added.

Boils

Grape and Peach Leaves ---- Southern nations applied a poultice of the ground leaves to the area and changed the bandage several times a day.

Bronchitis

Creosote Bush ---- A tea of the leaves was used for bronchial and other respiratory problems.

Pleurisy Root --- The Natchez drank a tea of the boiled roots as a remedy for pneumonia and was later used to promote the expulsion of phlegm.

Wormwood --- The Yokia Indians of Mendocino County used a tea of the boiled leaves of a local species of wormwood to cure bronchitis.

Broken Bones

Bone Set --- Pulverized into a wet mash poultice next to the skin prior to affected area being wrapped in clay over the poultice and changed daily. Saplings were used to reduce mobility.

Burns

Yellow-Spined Thistle ---- The Kiowa Indians boiled yellow-spined thistle blossoms and applied the resulting liquid to burns and skin sores.

Oak Bark ---- The inner bark was boiled and as the water cooled, the top layer was skimmed off and applied directly to the burn without a bandage.

Chills

Snake Root --- The root was pealed, boiled and the ground for use as a tea.

Colds

Boneset --- Boneset tea was one of the most frequently used home remedies during the last century. The Menominees used it to reduce fever; the Alabamas, to relive stomachache; the Creeks, for body pain; the Iroquois and the Mohegans, for fever and colds. Wild ginger was also used by the Iroquois and other nations.

Colic

Catnip ---- The Mohegans made a tea of catnip leaves for infant colic.

Constipation

Seed Bladder Nuts -----The nuts were ground into a flour and mixed with fruit.

Contraceptives

Ragleaf Bahia ---- The Navajos, who called the Ragleaf bahia herb twisted medicine, drank a tea of the roots boiled in water for thirty minutes for contraception purposes.

Indian Paintbrush --- Hopi women drank a tea of the whole Indian paintbrush to "Dry up the menstrual flow."

Blue Cohosh ---- Chippewa women drank a strong decoction of the powdered blue cohosh root to promote parturition and menstruation.

Dogbane ---- Generally used by many tribes, a tea from the boiled roots of the plant was drunk once a week.

Milkweed ---- Navajo women drank a tea prepared of the whole plant after childbirth. American Mistletoe. Indians of Mendocino County drank a tea of the leaves to induce abortion or to prevent conception.

Antelope Sage ---- To prevent conception, Navajo women drank one cup of a decoction of boiled antelope sage root during menstruation.

Stoneseed ----- Shoshoni women of Nevada reportedly drank a cold water infusion of stoneseed roots everyday for six months to ensure permanent sterility.

Coughs

Aspen ---- Cree Indians used an infusion of the inner bark as a remedy for coughs.

Wild Cherry ---- The Flambeau Ojibwa prepared a tea of the bark of wild cherry for coughs and colds, while other tribes used a bark for diarrhea or for lung troubles.

White Pine ---- The inner bark was used by Indians as a tea for colds and coughs.

Sarsaparilla ---- The Penobscots pulverized dried sarsaparilla roots and combined them with sweet flag roots in warm water and used the liquid as a cough remedy.

Chestnut ----- The inner bark was used like white pine and wild cherry.

Diabetes

Wild Carrot ---- The Mohegans steeped the blossoms of this wild species in warm water when they were in full bloom and took the drink for diabetes.

Devil's Club ----- The Indians of British Columbia utilized a tea of the root bark to offset the effects of diabetes.

Diarrhea

Black Cherry --- A tea of blackberry roots was the most frequently used remedy for diarrhea among Indians of northern California.

Wild Black Cherry ---- The Mohegans allowed the ripe wild black cherry to ferment naturally in a jar about one year than then drank the juice to cure dysentery.

Dogwood ---- The Menominees boiled the inner bark of the dogwood and passed the warm solution into the rectum with a rectal syringe made from the bladder of a small mammal and the hollow bone of a bird.

Geranium ---- Chippewa and Ottawa tribes boiled the entire geranium plant and drank the tea for diarrhea.

White Oak ---- Iroquois and Penobscots boiled the bark of the white oak and drank the liquid for bleeding piles and diarrhea.

Black Raspberry ----- The Pawnee, Omaha, and Dakota tribes boiled the root bark of black raspberry for dysentery.

Star Grass ----- Catawbas drank a tea of star grass leaves for dysentery.

Digestive Disorders

Dandelion ----- A tea of the roots was drunk for heartburn by the Pillager Ojibwas. Mohegans drank a tea of the leaves for a tonic.

Yellow Root ----- A tea from the root was used by the Catawbas and the Cherokee as a stomach ache remedy.

Fevers

Dogwood ---- The Delaware Indians, who called the tree Hat-ta-wa-no-min-schi, boiled the inner bark in water, using the tea to reduce fevers.

Willow ---- The Pomo tribe boiled the inner root bark, then drank strong doses of the resulting tea to induce sweating in cases of chills and fever. In the south, the Natchez prepared their fever remedies from the bark of the red willow, while the Alabama and Creek Indians plunged into willow root baths for the same purpose.

Feverwort ----- The Cherokees drank a decoction of the coarse, leafy, perennial herb to cure fevers.

Headache

Pennyroyal ---- The Onondagas steeped pennyroyal leaves and drank the tea to cure headaches.

Willow Bark ----- Many tribes knew the inner bark of the willow ground into powder and mixed with water relieved headaches. It was also used for potential heart attacks.

Heart and Circulatory Problems

Green Hellebore ---- The Cherokee used the green hellebore to relive body pains.

American Hemp and Dogbane ---- Used by the Prairie Potawatomis as a heart medicine, the fruit was boiled when it was still green, and the resulting decoction drunk. It was also used for kidney problems and for dropsy.

Hemorrhoids

White Oak --- The Menominee tribe treated piles by squirting an infusion of the scraped inner bark of oak into the rectum with a syringe made from an animal bladder and the hollow bone of a bird.

Hiccups

Wild Cherry Tea ---- Used in case of chronic hiccups, the liquid was gulped down repeatedly for several hours.

Inflammations and Swellings

Witch Hazel ---- The Menominees of Wisconsin boiled the leaves and rubbed the liquid on the legs of tribesmen who were participating in sporting games. A decoction of the boiled twigs was used to cure aching backs, while steam derived by placing the twigs in water with hot rocks was a favorite Potawatomi treatment for muscle aches.

Influenza

Native Hemlock (as opposed Poison Hemlock of Socrates fame). ---- The Menominees prepared a tea if the inner bark and drank it to relieve cold symptoms. A similar tea was used by the Forest Potawatomis to induce sweating and relieve colds and feverish conditions.

Insect Bites and Stings

Fendler Bladderpod ----- The Navajos made a tea and used it to treat spider bites.

Purple Coneflower ---- The Plains Indians used this as a universal application for the bites and stings of all crawling, flying, or leaping bugs. Between June and September, the bristly stemmed plant, which grows in dry, open woods and on prairies, bears a striking purplish flower.

Stiff Goldenrod --- The Meskwaki Indians of Minnesota ground the flowers into a lotion and applied it to bee stings.

Trumpet Honeysuckle ---- The leaves were ground by chewing and then applied to bees stings.

Wild Onion and Garlic ---- The Dakotas and Winnebagos applied the crushed bulbs of wild onions and garlics.

Saltbush ---- The Navajos chewed the stems and placed the pulpy mash on areas of swelling caused by ant, bee and wasp bites. The Zunis applied the dried, powdered roots and flowers mixed with saliva to ant bites.

Broom Snakeweed ---- The Navajos chewed the stem and applied the resin to insect bites and stings of all kinds.

Tobacco ---- A favorite remedy for bee stings was the application of wet tobacco leaves.

Mullein ---- A poultice of the wet puffy mullein seed pods was used by many nations.

Clay ---- The purple, yellow and blue clay surrounding crystals was sifted to remove tiny crystals and ground into a powder, made wet into a paste and applied as a poultice.

Insect Repellents and Insecticides

Goldenseal ---- The Cherokee pounded the large rootstock with bear fat and smeared it on their bodies as an insect repellent. It was also used as a tonic, stimulant, and astringent.

Poison Ivy

Poison Ivy Leaves ----- The moist leaves were heated by steam for several hours and rubbed into the skin, especially to areas surrounding the afflicted spots. While this method did not provide much relief from itching, it did build an immediate immunity to the surrounding skin and future contact.

Rheumatism

Pokeweed ---- Indians of Virginia drank a tea of the boiled berries to cure rheumatism. The dried root was also used to allay inflammation.

Bloodroot ---- A favorite rheumatism remedy among the Indians of the Mississippi region - the Rappahannocks of Virginia drank a tea of the root.

Sedatives

Wild Black Cherry ---- The Meskwaki tribe made a sedative tea of the root bark.

Hops ---- The Mohegans prepared a sedative medicine from the conelike strobiles and sometimes heated the blossoms and applied them for toothache. The Dakota tribe used a tea of the steeped strobiles to relieve pains of the digestive organs, and the Menominee tribe regarded a related species of hops as a panacea.

Wild Lettuce ---- Indigenous to North American, it was used for sedative purposes, especially in nervous complaints.

Snake Bite

Red Elm ---- After removing as much venom as possible, Indians used the ground inner bark and young early spring leaves as a poultice applied directly to the bite.

Sore Throat

Elm Bark Tea ---- Widely used to reduce inflammation.

Stomach Ache

Golden Seal ---- Many tribes drank a tea made from the leaves of this plant.

Thrush

Geranium ----- The Cherokee boiled geranium root together with wild grape, and with the liquid, rinsed the mouths of children affected with thrush.

Persimmon ----- The Catawba stripped the bark from the tree and boiled it in water, using the resulting dark liquid as a mouth rinse.

Wild Iris --- This plant was used as a tea and mash for sore mouths.

Toothache

Prickly Ash ---- The root and leaves were pounded into a wet mash and applied on the gums to deaden nerves and reduce inflammation.

Vomiting

Beech Bark Tea ---- Used wherever this tree grew, a tea was a sure tonic for vomiting.

Warts

Milk Weed ----- Used by many nations, the white milk sap was used as a poultice.

"I hope the Great Heavenly Father, who will look down upon us, will give all the tribes his blessing, that we may go forth in peace, and live in peace all our days, and that He will look down upon our children and finally lift us far above this earth."

---- Red Cloud

"The earth and myself are of one mind."

-- Chief Joseph

"Look at the faces of my People...
You will find expressions..
of love and despair..,
hope and joy..,
sadness and desire...

All of the human feelings
that live in the hearts
of people of all colors..

Yet.., the heart never knows
the color of the skin.."

---- Chief Dan George

"If the legends fall silent...,
who will teach the children
of our ways..?"

---- Chief Dan George

"The time will soon be here,
when my grandchild will long for the cry of a loon,
the flash of a salmon..,
the whisper of spruce needles..,
or the screech of an eagle..

But, he will not make friends with any of these creatures..
..and when his heart aches with longing..,
he will curse me.."..

---- Chief Dan George

POISON PLANTS AND WARNINGS

POINTS TO REMEMBER

If you have not positively identified a plant and its origin. DO NOT EAT or use it in any way. Make certain branches used as skewers during outdoor cookouts are not from a poisonous tree or shrub.

Make certain the plants you use are not deadly look-alikes.

Do not assume because an animal eats a plant that it is fit for human consumption.

Cooking does not always detoxify a poisonous plant.

Store poisonous plants in a secure location out of the reach of children.

Teach children to keep flowers, seeds, berries and leaves out of their mouths.

IF POISONING OCCURS

Immediately call a doctor, hospital or poison control center.

Report the name of the plant, amount and part of the plant digested, the time the poison was ingested and save the plant.

If a doctor is NOT available:

Have the victim drink plenty of water.

IF victim is conscious and NOT convulsing:

Induce vomiting by tickling the back of the throat with a blunt instrument like a finger or spoon.

If vomiting cannot be induced by stimulation, have the victim drink soapy water, saltwater or Syrup of Ipecac. Get Syrup of Ipecac from most pharmacies. Keep in your medicine cabinet or kit at all times. Adult: 2 tablespoons Child: 1 tablespoon Infant: 2 teaspoons

Keep victim comfortable and administer artificial respiration if necessary.

Take the victim and the plant to nearest medical facility.

DO NOT BLAME ME, IF YOU DON'T FOLLOW DIRECTIONS PROPERLY

Apache Indian Chiefs and Leaders

Geronimo

Geronimo is Spanish for Jerome, applied by the Mexicans as a nickname. His native name Goyathlay, `one who yawns'). A medicine man and prophet of the Chiricahua Apache who, in the latter part of the 19th century, acquired notoriety through his opposition to the authorities and by systematic and sensational advertising; born about 1834 at the headwaters of Gila River, New Mexico, near old Ft Tulerosa. His father was Taklishim,

`The Gray One,' who was not a chief, although his father (Geronimo's grandfather) assumed to be a chief without heredity or election. Geronimo's mother was known as Juana.

When it was decided, in 1876, in consequence of depredations committed in Sonora, of which the Mexican government complained, to remove the Chiricahua from their reservation on the south frontier to San Carlos, Arizona. Geronimo and others of the younger chiefs fled into Mexico. He was arrested later when he returned with his band to Ojo Caliente, New Mexico, and tilled the ground in peace on San Carlos reservation until the Chiricahua became discontented because the Government would not help them irrigate their lands. In 1882 Geronimo led one of the hands that raided in Sonora and surrendered when surrounded by General George H. Crook's force in the Sierra Madre. He had one of the best farms at San Carlos, when trouble arose in 1854 in consequence of the attempt of the authorities to stop the making of tiswin, the native intoxicant.

During 1884-85 he gathered a band of hostiles, who terrorized the inhabitants of south Arizona and New Mexico, as well as of Sonora and Chihuahua, in Mexico. Gen. Crook proceeded against them with instructions to capture or destroy the chief and his followers.

In Mar. 1886, a truce was made, followed by a conference, at which the terms of surrender were agreed on; but Geronimo and his followers having again fled to the Sierra Madre across the Mexican frontier, and General Miles having been placed in command, active operations were renewed and their surrender was ultimately effected in the following August. The entire band, numbering about 340, including Geronimo and Nachi, the hereditary chief, were deported as prisoners of war, first to Florida and later to Alabama, being finally settled at Ft Sill, Okla., where they now reside under military supervision and in prosperous condition, being industrious workers and careful spenders. (J. M. C. T. )

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Cochise

A Chiricahua Apache chief, son and successor of Nachi. Although constantly at feud with the Mexicans, he gave no trouble to the Americans until after he went, in 1861, under a flag of truce, to the camp of a party of soldiers to deny that his tribe had abducted a white child. The commanding officer was angered by this and ordered the visiting chiefs seized and bound because they would not confess. One was killed and four were caught, but Cochise, cutting through the side of a tent, made his escape with three bullets in his body and immediately began hostilities to avenge his companions, who were hanged by the Federal troops. The troops were forced to retreat, and white settlements in Arizona were laid waste.

Soon afterward the military posts were abandoned, the troops being recalled to take part in the Civil war. This convinced the Apache that they need only to fight to prevent Americans front settling in their country. Cochise and Mangos Coloradas defended Apache pass in southeast Arizona against the Californians, who marched under Gen. Carleton to reopen communication between the Pacific coast and the east. The howitzers of the California volunteers put the Apache to flight . When United States troops returned to resume the occupancy of the country after the close of the Civil war, a war of extermination was carried on against the Apache.

Cochise did not surrender till Sept., 1871. When orders came to transfer his people from Canada Alamosa to the new Tularosa reservation, in New Mexico, he escaped with a hand of 200 in the spring of 1872, and his example was followed by 600 others. After the Chiricahua reservation was established Arizona, in the summer of 1872, he carne in, and there died in peace June 8, 1874. He was succeeded as chief by his son Taza. The southeastern most county of Arizona bears Cochise's name.

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Nahche

Nahche (Na-ai-che, `mischievous,' `meddlesome.'-George Wrattan). An Apache warrior, a member of the Chiricahua band. He is the second son of the celebrated Cochise, and as hereditary chief succeeded his elder brother, Tazi, on the death of the latter. His mother was a daughter of the notorious Mangas Coloradas.

As a child Nahche was meddlesome and mischievous, hence his name. He was the leading spirit in the many raids that almost desolated the smaller settlements of Arizona and New Mexico and of northern Chihuahua and Sonora between 1881 and 1886, for which Geronimo's, a Medicine-man and malcontent rather than a warrior, received the chief credit. In the latter year Geronimo's band, so called, of which Nahche was actually the chief, was captured by General Miles and taken as prisoners of war successively to Florida, Alabama, and finally to Fort Sill, Oklahoma, where Nahche still resides, respected by his own people as well as by the whites.

He is now (1907) about 49 years of age. In his prime as a warrior he was described as supple and graceful, with long, flexible hands, and a rather handsome face. His present height is 5 ft. 10� inches Colonel H. L. Scott (infantry, 1907), for four years in charge of the Chiricahua prisoners in Oklahoma, speaks of Nahche as a most forceful and reliable man, faithfully performing the duties assigned to him as a prisoner, whether watched or not.

He was proud and self-respecting, and was regarded by the Chiricahua at Fort Sill as their leader. In recent years, however, he has lost his old-time influence as well as some of his trustworthiness (infantry from George Wrattan, official interpreter, 1907).

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Nakaidoklini

Nakaidoklini ('freckled Mexican' Matthews) An Apache medicine-man called Babbyduclone, Barbudeclenny, Bobby-dok-linny, Nakydoklunni, Nock-ay-Delklinne, eic., by the whites, influential among the White Mountain Indians in 1881, near Camp Apache, Arizona. He taught them a new dance, claiming it would bring dead warriors to life. In an attempt to arrest him, August 30, the Apache scouts with the troops turned upon the soldiers, resulting in a fight in which several were killed on each side, including the medicine-man himself. See Bourke in 9th Rep. B. A. E. 505, 1892; Mooney in 14th Rep. B.A.E. 704, 1896.

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Mangas Coloradas (In Spanish means `red sleeves') .

A Mimbreno Apache chief. He pledged friendship to the Americans when General S. W. Kearny took possession of New Mexico in 1846. The chief stronghold of the Mimbrefios at that time was at the Santa Rita copper mines, south west New Mexico, where they had killed the miners in 1837 to avenge a massacre committed by white trappers who invited a number of Mimbrenos to a feast and murdered them to obtain the bounty of $100 offered by the state of Chihuahua for every Apache scalp.

When the boundary commission made its headquarters at Santa Rita trouble arose over the taking from the Mimbreno Apache of some Mexican captives and over the murder of an Indian by a Mexican whom the Americans refused to hang on the spot: The Mimbrenos retaliated by stealing some horses and mules belonging to the commission, and when the commissioners went on to survey another section of the boundary the Indians conceived that they had driven them away.

In consequence of indignities received at the hands of miners at the Pinos Altos gold mines, by whom he was bound and whipped, - Mangas Coloradas collected a large band of Apache and became the scourge of the white settlements for years. He formed an alliance with Cochise to resist the Californian volunteers who reoccupied the country when it was abandoned by troops at the beginning of the Civil war, and was wounded in an engagement at Apache pass, south east Arizona, that grew out of a misunderstanding regarding a theft of cattle. His men took him to Janos, in Chihuahua, and left him in the care of a surgeon with a warning that the town would be destroyed in case he were not cured: According to one account, soon after his recovery he was taken prisoner in Jan., 1863, by the Californians and was killed while attempting to escape, goaded, it is said, with a red-hot bayonet (Dunn, Massacres of Mts., 365, 374, 382, 1886), while Bell (New Tracks, ii, 24, 1869) states that in 1862 he was induced to enter Fort McLane, New Mexico, on the plea of making a treaty and receiving presents.

The soldiers imprisoned him in a hut, and at night a sentry shot him under the pretext that he feared the Indian would escape. Consult also Bancroft, Arizona and New Mexico, 1880.

CRAZY HORSE

Crazy Horse (Tashunkewitko) was born on the Republican River about 1845. He was killed at Fort Robinson, Nebraska, in 1877, so that he lived barely thirty-three years.

He was an uncommonly handsome man. While not the equal of Gall in magnificence and imposing stature, he was physically perfect, an Apollo in symmetry. Furthermore he was a true type of Indian refinement and grace. He was modest and courteous as Chief Joseph; the difference is that he was a born warrior, while Joseph was not. However, he was a gentle warrior, a true brave, who stood for the highest ideal of the Sioux.

Notwithstanding all that biased historians have said of him, it is only fair to judge a man by the estimate of his own people rather than that of his enemies.

The boyhood of Crazy Horse was passed in the days when the western Sioux saw a white man but seldom, and then it was usually a trader or a soldier. He was carefully brought up according to the tribal customs. At that period the Sioux prided themselves on the training and development of their sons and daughters, and not a step in that development was overlooked as an excuse to bring the child before the public by giving a feast in its honor. At such times the parents often gave so generously to the needy that they almost impoverished themselves, thus setting an example to the child of self-denial for the general good. His first step alone, the first word spoken, first game killed, the attainment of manhood or womanhood, each was the occasion of a feast and dance in his honor, at which the poor always benefited to the full extent of the parents' ability.

Big-heartedness, generosity, courage, and self-denial are the qualifications of a public servant, and the average Indian was keen to follow this ideal.

As every one knows, these characteristic traits become a weakness when he enters a life founded upon commerce and gain. Under such conditions the life of Crazy Horse began. His mother, like other mothers, tender and watchful of her boy, would never once place an obstacle in the way of his father's severe physical training. They laid the spiritual and patriotic foundations of his education in such a way that he early became conscious of the demands of public service.

He was perhaps four or five years old when the band was snowed in one severe winter. They were very short of food, but his father was a tireless hunter. The buffalo, their main dependence, were not to be found, but he was out in the storm and cold every day and finally brought in two antelopes. The little boy got on his pet pony and rode through the camp, telling the old folks to come to his mother's teepee for meat. It turned out that neither his father nor mother had authorized him to do this. Before they knew it, old men and women were lined up before the teepee home, ready to receive the meat, in answer to his invitation. As a result, the mother had to distribute nearly all of it, keeping only enough for two meals.

On the following day the child asked for food. His mother told him that the old folks had taken it all, and added: "Remember, my son, they went home singing praises in your name, not my name or your father's. You must be brave. You must live up to your reputation."

Crazy Horse loved horses, and his father gave him a pony of his own when he was very young. He became a fine horseman and accompanied his father on buffalo hunts, holding the pack horses while the men chased the buffalo and thus gradually learning the art. In those days the Sioux had but few guns, and the hunting was mostly done with bow and arrows.

Another story told of his boyhood is that when he was about twelve he went to look for the ponies with his little brother, whom he loved much, and took a great deal of pains to teach what he had already learned. They came to some wild cherry trees full of ripe fruit, and while they were enjoying it, the brothers were startled by the growl and sudden rush of a bear. Young Crazy Horse pushed his brother up into the nearest tree and himself sprang upon the back of one of the horses, which was frightened and ran some distance before he could control him. As soon as he could, however, he turned him about and came back, yelling and swinging his lariat over his head. The bear at first showed fight but finally turned and ran. The old man who told me this story added that young as he was, he had some power, so that even a grizzly did not care to tackle him. I believe it is a fact that a silver-tip will dare anything except a bell or a lasso line, so that accidentally the boy had hit upon the very thing which would drive him off.

It was usual for Sioux boys of his day to wait in the field after a buffalo hunt until sundown, when the young calves would come out in the open, hungrily seeking their mothers. Then these wild children would enjoy a mimic hunt, and lasso the calves or drive them into camp. Crazy Horse was found to be a determined little fellow, and it was settled one day among the larger boys that they would "stump" him to ride a good-sized bull calf. He rode the calf, and stayed on its back while it ran bawling over the hills, followed by the other boys on their ponies, until his strange mount stood trembling and exhausted.

At the age of sixteen he joined a war party against the Gros Ventres. He was well in the front of the charge, and at once established his bravery by following closely one of the foremost Sioux warriors, by the name of Hump, drawing the enemy's fire and circling around their advance guard. Suddenly Hump's horse was shot from under him, and there was a rush of warriors to kill or capture him while down. But amidst a shower of arrows the youth leaped from his pony, helped his friend into his own saddle, sprang up behind him, and carried him off in safety, although they were hotly pursued by the enemy. Thus he associated himself in his maiden battle with the wizard of Indian warfare, and Hump, who was then at the height of his own career, pronounced Crazy Horse the coming warrior of the Teton Sioux.

At this period of his life, as was customary with the best young men, he spent much time in prayer and solitude. Just what happened in these days of his fasting in the wilderness and upon the crown of bald buttes, no one will ever know; for these things may only be known when one has lived through the battles of life to an honored old age. He was much sought after by his youthful associates, but was noticeably reserved and modest; yet in the moment of danger he at once rose above them all -- a natural leader! Crazy Horse was a typical Sioux brave, and from the point of view of our race an ideal hero, living at the height of the epical progress of the American Indian and maintaining in his own character all that was most subtle and ennobling of their spiritual life, and that has since been lost in the contact with a material civilization.

He loved Hump, that peerless warrior, and the two became close friends, in spite of the difference in age. Men called them "the grizzly and his cub."

Again and again the pair saved the day for the Sioux in a skirmish with some neighboring tribe. But one day they undertook a losing battle against the Snakes. The Sioux were in full retreat and were fast being overwhelmed by superior numbers. The old warrior fell in a last desperate charge; but Crazy Horse and his younger brother, though dismounted, killed two of the enemy and thus made good their retreat.

It was observed of him that when he pursued the enemy into their stronghold, as he was wont to do, he often refrained from killing, and simply struck them with a switch, showing that he did not fear their weapons nor care to waste his upon them. In attempting this very feat, he lost this only brother of his, who emulated him closely. A party of young warriors, led by Crazy Horse, had dashed upon a frontier post, killed one of the sentinels, stampeded the horses, and pursued the herder to the very gate of the stockade, thus drawing upon themselves the fire of the garrison. The leader escaped without a scratch, but his young brother was brought down from his horse and killed.

While he was still under twenty, there was a great winter buffalo hunt, and he came back with ten buffaloes' tongues which he sent to the council lodge for the councilors' feast. He had in one winter day killed ten buffalo cows with his bow and arrows, and the unsuccessful hunters or those who had no swift ponies were made happy by his generosity. When the hunters returned, these came chanting songs of thanks. He knew that his father was an expert hunter and had a good horse, so he took no meat home, putting in practice the spirit of his early teaching.

He attained his majority at the crisis of the difficulties between the United States and the Sioux. Even before that time, Crazy Horse had already proved his worth to his people in Indian warfare. He had risked his life again and again, and in some instances it was considered almost a miracle that he had saved others as well as himself. He was no orator nor was he the son of a chief. His success and influence was purely a matter of personality. He had never fought the whites up to this time, and indeed no "coup" was counted for killing or scalping a white man.

Young Crazy Horse was twenty-one years old when all the Teton Sioux chiefs (the western or plains dwellers) met in council to determine upon their future policy toward the invader. Their former agreements had been by individual bands, each for itself, and every one was friendly. They reasoned that the country was wide, and that the white traders should be made welcome. Up to this time they had anticipated no conflict. They had permitted the Oregon Trail, but now to their astonishment forts were built and garrisoned in their territory.

Most of the chiefs advocated a strong resistance. There were a few influential men who desired still to live in peace, and who were willing to make another treaty. Among these were White Bull, Two Kettle, Four Bears, and Swift Bear. Even Spotted Tail, afterward the great peace chief, was at this time with the majority, who decided in the year 1866 to defend their rights and territory by force. Attacks were to be made upon the forts within their country and on every trespasser on the same.

Crazy Horse took no part in the discussion, but he and all the young warriors were in accord with the decision of the council. Although so young, he was already a leader among them. Other prominent young braves were Sword (brother of the man of that name who was long captain of police at Pine Ridge), the younger Hump, Charging Bear, Spotted Elk, Crow King, No Water, Big Road, He Dog, the nephew of Red Cloud, and Touch-the-Cloud, intimate friend of Crazy Horse.

The attack on Fort Phil Kearny was the first fruits of the new policy, and here Crazy Horse was chosen to lead the attack on the woodchoppers, designed to draw the soldiers out of the fort, while an army of six hundred lay in wait for them. The success of this stratagem was further enhanced by his masterful handling of his men. From this time on a general war was inaugurated; Sitting Bull looked to him as a principal war leader, and even the Cheyenne chiefs, allies of the Sioux, practically acknowledged his leadership. Yet during the following ten years of defensive war he was never known to make a speech, though his teepee was the rendezvous of the young men. He was depended upon to put into action the decisions of the council, and was frequently consulted by the older chiefs.

Like Osceola, he rose suddenly; like Tecumseh he was always impatient for battle; like Pontiac, he fought on while his allies were suing for peace, and like Grant, the silent soldier, he was a man of deeds and not of words. He won from Custer and Fetterman and Crook. He won every battle that he undertook, with the exception of one or two occasions when he was surprised in the midst of his women and children, and even then he managed to extricate himself in safety from a difficult position.

Early in the year 1876, his runners brought word from Sitting Bull that all the roving bands would converge upon the upper Tongue River in Montana for summer feasts and conferences. There was conflicting news from the reservation. It was rumored that the army would fight the Sioux to a finish; again, it was said that another commission would be sent out to treat with them.

The Indians came together early in June, and formed a series of encampments stretching out from three to four miles, each band keeping separate camp. On June 17, scouts came in and reported the advance of a large body of troops under General Crook. The council sent Crazy Horse with seven hundred men to meet and attack him. These were nearly all young men, many of them under twenty, the flower of the hostile Sioux. They set out at night so as to steal a march upon the enemy, but within three or four miles of his camp they came unexpectedly upon some of his Crow scouts. There was a hurried exchange of shots; the Crows fled back to Crook's camp, pursued by the Sioux. The soldiers had their warning, and it was impossible to enter the well-protected camp. Again and again Crazy Horse charged with his bravest men, in the attempt to bring the troops into the open, but he succeeded only in drawing their fire. Toward afternoon he withdrew, and returned to camp disappointed. His scouts remained to watch Crook's movements, and later brought word that he had retreated to Goose Creek and seemed to have no further disposition to disturb the Sioux. It is well known to us that it is Crook rather than Reno who is to be blamed for cowardice in connection with Custer's fate. The latter had no chance to do anything, he was lucky to save himself; but if Crook had kept on his way, as ordered, to meet Terry, with his one thousand regulars and two hundred Crow and Shoshone scouts, he would inevitably have intercepted Custer in his advance and saved the day for him, and war with the Sioux would have ended right there. Instead of this, he fell back upon Fort Meade, eating his horses on the way, in a country swarming with game, for fear of Crazy Horse and his braves!

The Indians now crossed the divide between the Tongue and the Little Big Horn, where they felt safe from immediate pursuit. Here, with all their precautions, they were caught unawares by General Custer, in the midst of their midday games and festivities, while many were out upon the daily hunt.

On this twenty-fifth of June, 1876, the great camp was scattered for three miles or more along the level river bottom, back of the thin line of cottonwoods -- five circular rows of teepees, ranging from half a mile to a mile and a half in circumference. Here and there stood out a large, white, solitary teepee; these were the lodges or "clubs" of the young men. Crazy Horse was a member of the "Strong Hearts" and the "Tokala" or Fox lodge. He was watching a game of ring-toss when the warning came from the southern end of the camp of the approach of troops.

The Sioux and the Cheyennes were "minute men", and although taken by surprise, they instantly responded. Meanwhile, the women and children were thrown into confusion. Dogs were howling, ponies running hither and thither, pursued by their owners, while many of the old men were singing their lodge songs to encourage the warriors, or praising the "strong heart" of Crazy Horse.

That leader had quickly saddled his favorite war pony and was starting with his young men for the south end of the camp, when a fresh alarm came from the opposite direction, and looking up, he saw Custer's force upon the top of the bluff directly across the river. As quick as a flash, he took in the situation -- the enemy had planned to attack the camp at both ends at once; and knowing that Custer could not ford the river at that point, he instantly led his men northward to the ford to cut him off. The Cheyennes followed closely. Custer must have seen that wonderful dash up the sage-bush plain, and one wonders whether he realized its meaning. In a very few minutes, this wild general of the plains had outwitted one of the most brilliant leaders of the Civil War and ended at once his military career and his life.

In this dashing charge, Crazy Horse snatched his most famous victory out of what seemed frightful peril, for the Sioux could not know how many were behind Custer. He was caught in his own trap. To the soldiers it must have seemed as if the Indians rose up from the earth to overwhelm them. They closed in from three sides and fought until not a white man was left alive. Then they went down to Reno's stand and found him so well entrenched in a deep gully that it was impossible to dislodge him. Gall and his men held him there until the approach of General Terry compelled the Sioux to break camp and scatter in different directions.

While Sitting Bull was pursued into Canada, Crazy Horse and the Cheyennes wandered about, comparatively undisturbed, during the rest of that year, until in the winter the army surprised the Cheyennes, but did not do them much harm, possibly because they knew that Crazy Horse was not far off. His name was held in wholesome respect. From time to time, delegations of friendly Indians were sent to him, to urge him to come in to the reservation, promising a full hearing and fair treatment.

For some time he held out, but the rapid disappearance of the buffalo, their only means of support, probably weighed with him more than any other influence. In July, 1877, he was finally prevailed upon to come in to Fort Robinson, Nebraska, with several thousand Indians, most of them Ogallala and Minneconwoju Sioux, on the distinct understanding that the government would hear and adjust their grievances.

At this juncture General Crook proclaimed Spotted Tail, who had rendered much valuable service to the army, head chief of the Sioux, which was resented by many. The attention paid Crazy Horse was offensive to Spotted Tail and the Indian scouts, who planned a conspiracy against him. They reported to General Crook that the young chief would murder him at the next council, and stampede the Sioux into another war. He was urged not to attend the council and did not, but sent another officer to represent him. Meanwhile the friends of Crazy Horse discovered the plot and told him of it. His reply was, "Only cowards are murderers."

His wife was critically ill at the time, and he decided to take her to her parents at Spotted Tail agency, whereupon his enemies circulated the story that he had fled, and a party of scouts was sent after him. They overtook him riding with his wife and one other but did not undertake to arrest him, and after he had left the sick woman with her people he went to call on Captain Lea, the agent for the Brules, accompanied by all the warriors of the Minneconwoju band. This volunteer escort made an imposing appearance on horseback, shouting and singing, and in the words of Captain Lea himself and the missionary, the Reverend Mr. Cleveland, the situation was extremely critical. Indeed, the scouts who had followed Crazy Horse from Red Cloud agency were advised not to show themselves, as some of the warriors had urged that they be taken out and horsewhipped publicly. Under these circumstances Crazy Horse again showed his masterful spirit by holding these young men in check. He said to them in his quiet way: "It is well to be brave in the field of battle; it is cowardly to display bravery against one's own tribesmen. These scouts have been compelled to do what they did; they are no better than servants of the white officers. I came here on a peaceful errand."

The captain urged him to report at army headquarters to explain himself and correct false rumors, and on his giving consent, furnished him with a wagon and escort. It has been said that he went back under arrest, but this is untrue. Indians have boasted that they had a hand in bringing him in, but their stories are without foundation. He went of his own accord, either suspecting no treachery or determined to defy it.

When he reached the military camp, Little Big Man walked arm-in-arm with him, and his cousin and friend, Touch-the-Cloud, was just in advance. After they passed the sentinel, an officer approached them and walked on his other side. He was unarmed but for the knife which is carried for ordinary uses by women as well as men. Unsuspectingly he walked toward the guardhouse, when Touch-the-Cloud suddenly turned back exclaiming: "Cousin, they will put you in prison!"

"Another white man's trick! Let me go! Let me die fighting!" cried Crazy Horse. He stopped and tried to free himself and draw his knife, but both arms were held fast by Little Big Man and the officer. While he struggled thus, a soldier thrust him through with his bayonet from behind. The wound was mortal, and he died in the course of that night, his old father singing the death song over him and afterward carrying away the body, which they said must not be further polluted by the touch of a white man. They hid it somewhere in the Bad Lands, his resting place to this day.

Thus died one of the ablest and truest American Indians. His life was ideal; his record clean. He was never involved in any of the numerous massacres on the trail, but was a leader in practically every open fight. Such characters as those of Crazy Horse and Chief Joseph are not easily found among so-called civilized people. The reputation of great men is apt to be shadowed by questionable motives and policies, but here are two pure patriots, as worthy of honor as any who ever breathed God's air in the wide spaces of a new world.

How The Powwow Began...

"Powwow was an Algonquin term, "pauwau" or "pauau", which referred to a gathering of medicine men and spiritual leaders. "Pauwauing" referred to a religious ceremony, usually one of curing. In the 1800's the European explorers observing these religious gatherings and dances mispronounced the word as powwow. (Jennings, The Invasion of America, p. 241.)

In 1646 the Massachusetts General Court decreed that “no Indian shall at any time pawwaw, or perform outward worship to their false gods, or to the devil....” (~From William Marder)

The two syllables pow and wow are not separated or hyphenated. The word appears as "powwow".

Native American ceremonies, commonly known as powwows, have evolved from a formal ceremony of the past into a modern blend of dance, family reunion, and festival. Powwows are famous for their pageantry of colors and dance which have been adapted and changed since their beginnings into a bright, fast, and exciting event geared towards Native Americans and visitors alike.

Today powwows are held all across the North American continent, from small towns such as White Eagle, Oklahoma, to some of the largest, such as Los Angeles, California. They can take place anywhere from cow pastures to convention centers, and occur year round. These festivals last only one weekend, but usually draw Native Americans and visitors from hundreds and even thousands of miles away.

There is a reason for the hours of travel, a reason that deals with who you are; what you feel and what you believe. Some come to these celebrations to “contest,” some come to sing songs, some come to see relatives and friends, and some come for the atmosphere. A powwow makes people feel good, a feeling that is mental and physical. For this reason, powwows spread across the plains quickly and today serve as one of the main cultural activities of Native Americans.

The powwow is the Native American’s way of meeting together to join in dancing, singing, visiting, renewing old friendships and making new ones. This is a time to renew thoughts of the old ways and to reserve a rich heritage.

The Poncas were the first to practice this ceremony, which they call the Hethuska, as early as 1804. They passed the Hethuska to the Kaw, and they in turn gave the dance to the Osage, who named it the “Inlonschka”. The Omaha then acquired the ceremony and spread it north to the Lakota (Sioux) tribe who popularized it on reservations in the late 1890’s. In this time, the “Omaha”, or “Grass” dance as it was then called, spread faster than the more famous Ghost Dance of the same time. Unlike ceremonial dances of other tribes, the Grass dancers danced for the purpose of dancing itself, instead of as a religious ceremony.

Dances have always been an important part of the life of the Native American. Over the years, dance styles and content have changed, their meaning and importance have not. There is a belief held by some in the Native American community that when they were forced onto reservations, they were also forced to have dances for the public to come and see. Before each dance, they were led through the town in a parade. This, according to some, was the beginning of the modern powwow.

Powwow singers are also very important figures in the Native American culture. Without them, there would be no dancing. The songs are of many varieties, from religious to war to social. As various tribes gathered together, they would share their songs, often changing the songs so singers of different tribes could join in. With these changes came the use of “vocables” to replace the words of the old songs. Thus, some songs today are sung in “vocables” with no words. Yet, they still hold special meaning to those who know the song. They are reminders to Native Americans of their old ways and rich heritage.

In the 1920’s, some powwows became “inter-tribal,” meaning that they were open for all tribes to attend, and the practice of “contesting” began. Contesting involves dance competitions that may last all weekend, taking into account how often dancers dance as well as how well they may dance. The prizes can run into the thousands of dollars.

World War II brought a revival to the powwow world. Ever since, powwows have been growing, constantly changing and adapting to modern ways, while retaining their cultural roots. Brighter colors, more motions and even a new style of dance have emerged from the passage of time. The Native American culture is not dead and fixed under the glass of a museum. It is, instead, a living culture, retaining its heritage and advancing with the times.

"As long as you live, keep learning how to live."

---- Segoyewatha [Red Jacket] (1750-1830); Native American Seneca Chief, Orator

"It is not because things are difficult that we do not dare; it is because we do not dare that they are difficult."

---- Segoyewatha [Red Jacket]